Emerging farmers often feel pressurised when they acquire land to put something in the ground as soon as possible for financial and personal reasons. Unfortunately, the results at the end of the production cycle are not what they expected, as the final act - that of getting paid for their efforts - never occurs.

The reason for this is mostly inadequate knowledge of the market they are operating in:

1. Identifying market needs
2. Identifying different marketing channels (establishing consumer needs and how to best, satisfy them) and
3. Gathering and using information gained on competitors and their activities in the marketplace.

With this knowledge, farmers can make informed decisions on what to produce for whom, and how to present the final product to this group.

For emerging farmers (all farmers in general) to flourish, it is essential that they remain relevant to chosen markets by offering continuous quality, quantity and supply consistency.

Good quality produce requires critical marketing success indicators - proper crop management, pest and disease control, harvest practices, and postharvest handling. Quantity and consistency ensure agent support at the markets and grow buyer loyalty and attachment to the brand.

Formal markets have strict rules and regulations, and a set of required quality standards that are higher, and farmers need to consider this even before they start production. Fresh Produce Markets include:

• Municipal Fresh Produce Markets where producers need the assistance of market agents to gain access
• Export markets where very stringent health and food safety requirements (e.g. HACCP) prevail, and only products of the highest quality are accepted. Exporting fresh produce is a rewarding, but challenging market and farmers are mostly dependent on exporting agents and companies
• Retail stores, green grocers, and processing units that are governed by supply contracts. These markets have set requirements and specifications in terms of food safety, quality, packaging, and consistency of supply.

Informal markets and hawkers are markets often based on buyer's loyalty, while price, quality and quantity remain relevant.

It is often said that for a farming enterprise to be successful, dispensing (through marketing) the final product is as important as producing it - for all farm enterprises irrespective of size. It is, therefore, vital for farmers to continuously assess market needs, identify opportunities, and align production accordingly.

Small-scale farmers inherently adopt informal risk management strategies based on traditional, less risky, but less profitable, farming practices. By using more efficient strategies, it is estimated that income could be increased by up to 30% (Rashid and Jayne, 2010).

This means that smallholders are trapped in a system that can be sustained only at a subsistence level.

Agriculturists from across the spectrum have grappled with solving this problem since the mid-twentieth century. Solutions have been proposed and implemented, some with success, notably the "green revolution" in rice production in Asia. However, the gap in productivity between large commercial farms and small-scale farms remains, particularly in Africa.

The one obvious difference is the economy-of-scale. Inefficiencies exist at every step of the value-chain in small-scale farming businesses, from the acquisition of inputs to the final marketplace. An obvious answer is for farmers to form farming cooperatives. However, this is no new strategy, and the concept of farming cooperatives has experienced many attempts at implementation with very few successes.

However, this is no reason not to develop different approaches; the dynamics of production and marketing are continually changing, and consequently new opportunities continuously arise. Cases of successful market-driven business models involving entrepreneurial, and willing small-scale farmers, can increasingly be seen across Africa.

Furthermore, the tools to achieve this have advanced exponentially in sophistication in recent years; information and mobile technology facilitate communication and data analysis essential for many production and marketing systems.

This can be better explained through the description of an actual project. In northern Nigeria, a survey has mapped tomato farmers, and data collected from them, such as their location (GIS), contact details, seasonal production, production practices, markets and other data. This automatically facilitates the formation of clusters of growers.

This information is made available to processors of tomato paste (a market) who depend on the supply of fresh tomatoes. In future, it will also be available to service providers, input suppliers, markets and others in the value-chain.

Linking the small-scale tomato growers with processors ensures, firstly, that farmers sell all their produce - some of which was wasted in the past - and secondly, that processors obtain a continual supply of raw material necessary for the operation of the plant, from the local clusters of growers.

This is all driven by national (domestic) demand, not only for fresh tomatoes but also for tomato paste. Currently, 150 000 tons of paste is imported annually, which equates to 1 million tons of fresh tomatoes, or 70% more than current production.

Once tomato processors are well-established, the production of tomatoes will become more viable with more stable prices; and so become a sustainable source of revenue for small-scale farmers.

Furthermore, the cluster model will not only facilitate access to larger markets, but it will also facilitate access to discounted inputs and services for small-scale farmers.

The net results are that linking small-scale farmers to markets and service providers will assist them in breaking out of the cycle of continual subsistence production.

References:

• GEMS4 Programme. 2016. Mapping of Tomato Clusters in Northern Nigeria. Coffey Nigeria, Abuja.
• Rashid, S. and Jayne, T.S. 2010. Risk Management in African Agriculture: A Review of Experiences. 4th African Agricultural Markets Program (AAMP) Policy Symposium; Lilongwe, Malawi.

Modern-day consumers demand quality for their money - they want food that is not only economical but also healthy, tasty and safe - forcing what once was a quantity-orientated food production into a quality-orientated food market where a range of commodities, production areas, production chains, and brands compete for attention.

In quantity-orientated markets, producers were almost able to sell whatever they produced. Today, quality-orientated markets are market driven, and the shift in consumer demand has lead to the need for better quality control in the production (pre-harvest) and post-harvest phases.

Post-harvest food safety procedures during slaughter, meat processing, storage, and distribution have become the norm, and stringent meat inspection has lead to increased protection of consumers against meat-related food-borne diseases.

At the same time, consumers are becoming increasingly, more aware of the use of antimicrobials and hormones in animals raised under intensive systems, away from their natural habitats. As a result, the demand for fresh and naturally produced organic products has increased substantially, and consumers expect producers to ensure the absence of pathogens and contaminants in, or on meat products.

While meat inspection has a crucial role, it is unable to control and prevent emerging food-borne pathogens that pose a risk to human health. In the past meat was discarded if lesions were spotted but today many pathogens, such as Salmonella, are not detected as they do not cause clinical symptoms.

Since quality control only evaluates the final product before marketing, it is not possible to correct production failures or improve the final product - leading to products of lower quality fetching lower prices. The cost to produce both high and low-quality products is the same. Thus quality control alone has limited potential to increase the quality and efficiency of a multistep production procedure.

Quality assurance during the pre-harvest phase develops when quality checks and procedures are implemented to correct failures or mistakes, with the potential to negatively affect the quality of interim products, during each step of the production process.

The role of the livestock farmer has changed from just raising animals, to being an indispensable part of the food production chain. Supplying good quality products, quality assurance, and control already starts on the farm with the selection of the right genetics for breeding - and continues with the proper care and management of animals, controlling, and preventing diseases, and using correct nutrition programmes.

With an expected overall growth of 1.1 % per year in demand for agricultural products until 2050, the consumption of livestock products (protein), is expected to increase significantly. Livestock farmers will be required to increase both productivity and efficiency to meet the growing needs for safe, nutritious food of high quality. There is a now a greater need to improve food safety and to implement quality assurance from farm to table.

Producing high-quality livestock that produces healthy, tasty and safe products for human consumption, will make the livestock farmer a competitive, publicly accepted and appreciated component of the food chain.

We are confronted daily with television documentaries and articles in the media on Climate Change and Global Warming. Climate change science dates back to the early 19th century with the discovery of the natural greenhouse effect. In the 1960's, scientists blamed the industrial revolution for climate change. During the 1990's, the development of computerised models gave scientists a tool to look into the future to describe what the future earth, would look like.

The Long-Term Adaptation Scenarios Flagship Research Programme (LTAS) is a South African example of scientists coming together to determine the impact of climate change on South Africa, specifically focusing on agriculture.

South Africa's climate is highly variable and a determining factor when it comes to agricultural practices. In South Africa, with its water constraints, irrigation schemes and conservation agriculture programmes help to overcome our challenges.

If the current change in climate conditions continue, a negative effect on cereal crop production and animal husbandry practices is expected, with tropical crops showing positive impacts. The use of drought-resistant crop varieties and alternative crops is one way by which farmers can adapt to the changing conditions.

All scenarios developed by the LTAS point to an increase of irrigation to compensate for the change in climate. There is a likelihood that optimal growing regions will shift within the next 40 years. These shifts will have an impact on crop production as well as pastures and rangelands. Changes in the climate will also affect the development and spread of pests and diseases which would put further pressure on crop and animal production. The majority of studies and projections have focused on crop production, but models for heat stress and humidity indices have been developed to look at the impacts on livestock. Milk production, conception, and lower herbage yields are some of the major concerns for livestock farming. Farming with indigenous breeds is one solution to overcome issues of heat stress and recurring droughts.

Adaptation to climate change in South Africa will be different for large scale commercial farmers and subsistence farmers. While commercial farmers will focus on maximising output in a sustainable manner, a different strategy will be required by subsistence farmers to survive and prosper. Emphasis will be on promoting climate-resilient agricultural practices and in some instances, we will have to develop alternative sources to create sustainable incomes.

Agricultural best management practices will become the norm and include conservation agriculture practices such as minimising soil disturbances, maintaining soil cover, in-field and off-field water harvesting, maximising water storage, multi-cropping and integrated crop and livestock production. The positives and negatives of climate change need to be understood before looking at adaptation planning and strategies.

The Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations refer to Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) as a way to adapt to future climate change. The FOA proposes a move towards guiding farmers to the reorientation of agricultural systems to support, develop and ensure food security. CSA has three goals namely:

• To sustainably increase agricultural production and income,
• To adapt to climate change, and
• To Reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

With the changing climate, looking after one's natural resources is becoming more and more important. Soil and water resources will have to be managed and monitored more vigilantly, and strict measures are required to protect our natural resources.

The socio-economic forecasts have predicted an extreme shortage of proteins in the whole world under current cropping practices; that is, protein production is not currently sustainable. The reasons for this increasing demand for protein are two-fold. Obviously, the world population is steadily growing but at the same time, the average individual demand for protein is as well - the result of the reduction of poverty worldwide and the increasing demand for meat and dairy products from a more affluent population. Therefore, food and nutrition companies are searching for the alternative protein sources that may supplement this high demand of protein.

Proteins are large complex molecules that are required by the human body for various functions, which include building tissue, cells, and muscle, as well as the production of hormones and antibodies. They are an essential food nutrient vital for healthy development and growth of both children and adults. Proteins are complex molecules of hundreds or thousands of amino acid molecules joined to form long chains. On average a consumption of 0.8 to 1 g of protein is recommended per 1 kg of the body mass per day; in athletes, this can be as high as 1.2 to 1.7g per day.

The world demand for animal-derived protein is expected to double by 2050. The current production practices are putting intense pressure on land and sea resources. As mentioned, this is a result of a rising global population and the changing food consumption patterns. There is a general preference for meat and dairy products because both sources have a better taste, and high nutritional value; however, neither source is sustainable.

Experts throughout the world on protein production systems (food, nutrition, health and technology) have come together to try and balance demand and supply in an affordable and healthy manner without harming the environment.

On the one hand, these partners intend to convert the current protein production systems into a more efficient and sustainable model, while on the other hand, they are investigating alternative sources of protein. This could involve extraction of protein from different sources such as aquatic biomass (algae, sea or duck-weed), agricultural crops (canola, rapeseed, garden pea), as well as sugar beet leaf. Producing protein from plants avoids the intermediate step, and extremely inefficient need to feed beef, dairy cattle and fish, with crop products. The possible solutions of protein shortage in the world are;

• Increasing the quantity of plant-based protein consumption within the population
• Improving the efficiency of conversion of animal feed into protein through appropriate animal breeding programmes or techniques
• Develop new sources of plant protein such as indigenous plants, especially for local communities
• Increase sustainable aquaculture for food and animal feed
• Restoring soil health to improve crop productivity

Women play a fundamental role in the development of rural and national economies. Empowering women to participate fully in economic life across all sectors is essential to building stronger economies and improving the quality of life for women, their families and communities. Michelle Bachelet stated, "When women are empowered and can claim their rights and access to land, leadership, opportunities and choices, economies grow, food security is enhanced, and prospects are improved for current and future generations."

In the agricultural sector, the participation of women in all aspects of farming is increasing. Through their involvement in agriculture, the increasing number of women farmers is assisting the government in fighting poverty and creating jobs. Against all odds, South African women have taken the risk of embarking on what was, and still is, believed to be a male-dominated, agricultural sector.

For a very long time, livestock farming was considered to be the sole responsibility of men. However, times are changing, and today women make up a significant percentage of the agricultural workforce worldwide. Many rural women are small and medium business entrepreneurs and investors and are the sole owners of small and large livestock farms.

Despite the increased number of women farmers, many rural women still struggle. Since livestock production is perceived as a man's industry, women face more obstacles in accessing resources. Women need to be empowered by acquiring the necessary skills that will enable them to manage livestock production systems. Skills such as day-to-day management of livestock, record keeping, human resource management and financial management will assist women in playing a bigger role this sector.

The South African government, together with numerous stakeholders, have taken the initiative in the empowerment of female farmers. In 1999, the former Department of Agriculture initiated the Female Farmer Award Programme (now the Female Entrepreneur Award), which aims at rewarding, encouraging and increasing the participation of women in agricultural activities. This programme has been identified as a tool that will help new entrants of farmers and further assist women to expand their farming skills.

Manstrat Agricultural Intelligent Solutions has over the years supported the initiative of The Female Entrepreneur Award Programme, by sponsoring the winners with Tablets that enable winners to access the comprehensive online agricultural decision-making tool AgriSuite Online®, including extensive information on livestock enterprises.

Empowering and investing in women has proven to significantly increase productivity in agriculture, reduce hunger and malnutrition, and improve rural livelihoods. As we celebrate woman's month, let us congratulate and honour women for the role they play in food security, job creation and contributing towards the economy of the country.

REFERENCES

• http://www.wfo-oma.com/women-in-agriculture/articles/the-role...
• http://www.nda.agric.za/doaDev/topMenu/DoAProgrammes/Guide_Female..*.pdf
• http://www.hpp-sa.org/index.php/news-from-hppsa/589-women...

While an estimated 12% of South Africa's land is fit for crop production, only 22% is valued as high-potential arable land. The limited availability of water and unreliable rainfall remains a consistent threat to food production and food security. Despite the challenges, South Africa remains self-sufficient in most agricultural products, and is still seen as a net food exporter.

Urbanisation and soil erosion (international challenges) are primarily responsible for the diminishing availability of productive land for food production. Under these circumstances, the pressure is mounting on our farmers to produce the required quantity and quality of food to feed ourselves, and others on the continent and further abroad.

Innovation

To attain this represents a huge challenge and innovative practices are needed to ensure that we remain a food secure nation. The United Nations predict that 70% of world's additional food will be produced only by adapting to new agricultural technologies - modern agriculture.

Modern farming practices provide farmers with innovation, research, and scientific advancements for the production of safe, sustainable, and affordable food. In South Africa, as elsewhere, modern agricultural methods increase production, productivity, and profits. The advantages of access to information, education, training, and advice all form the basis applying new technologies and new technologies to produce under adverse conditions, using precise applications and fewer inputs, leading to increased productivity and higher yields, and creating an affordable supply of nutritious food.

Technology

Technologies such as hydroponics and greenhouse production are viable alternatives when limited space and adverse climate affects productivity, are already widely in use in South Africa, allowing farmers to manipulate the climate in the houses.

Varieties

Different varieties are available for planting disease and drought resistant, fast growing, high yielding, for dealing with climate-driven events such as droughts, floods and temperature fluctuations. Internationally, techniques for gene manipulation and alteration, a whole range of improved crops and animals have become reality.

Precision Farming

Precision farming technologies further enhance the potential of increasing productivity through determining more precise input needs (and costs) through accurate information on the amount of water and fertilizers required, reducing the hazard of over, or under application to the minimum. The net result is increased production, with less input of resources.

For Africa and the developing world, the use of modern technologies for agricultural production is critical in ensuring food security. All producers must shift their focus to all the assistance they can muster, and the primary source of that is clearly technological innovation and methodologies. Acceptance and adaptation of farmers to these technologies will go a long way to ensuring that the required quantity and quality of food is produced to feed the nation and the continent.

Permaculture is not new, being a holistic, integrated system where natural energies are utilised in a sustainable way. David Holmgren and Bill Mollison coined the phrase in 1978 and since then, permaculture has been practiced by permaculturists, environmentalists, organic farmers, urban activists, and indigenous people, often without them even realising it.

However, with ever increasing feed prices and other production costs, farmers are looking for new sustainable ways of farming to increase productivity while decreasing costs, and permaculture fits right in as a modern farming method, to do just that.

Permaculture is defined as the design of land use systems that are sustainable and environmentally sound. The term permaculture is a contraction of the words "Permanent Agriculture". It is an ethical approach to designing land use and community systems that will provide food, shelter, energy and other essentials for human survival. It strives for a harmonious integration of human habitation, microclimate, plants, animals, soil, and water into stable and productive communities.

Permaculture focuses on three main ethics:

1. Care of the earth
2. Care of people
3. Fair share

These ethics form the foundation for permaculture design, and are at the centre of the permaculture philosophy - working with, rather than against nature.

Since every farm is different, permaculture designs are site-specific and designed according to the landscape of the farm. By carefully observing the natural patterns of the landscape, optimal methods for integrating water catchment, human dwellings and energy systems with tree crops, edible perennial plants and animals can be discerned.

On a livestock farm, the animals can be used as part of a creative plan for soil rehabilitation and reforestation. Nature always opts for balance and in an overgrazed pasture the land will degenerate, and animals will be susceptible to intestinal parasites. The application of permaculture techniques includes dividing up the land into grazing cells and by using the slope of the land. Manure from grazing animals washes into swales, spreading the nutrients across the property. Food forests developed below the swales take up nutrients for the production of food and biomass.

Using a multitude of animal species in a leader-follower type grazing system can further enhance the nutrient content and restoration of the pasture. An example is moving chickens onto pasture after grazing by cattle. The chickens deposit a different diversity of nutrients and can clear the pasture of unwanted pests and unfavourable weeds.

By incorporating permaculture techniques, a farm can maintain a healthy landscape that benefits people and animals, saving on feed and medical costs for animals while increasing sustainability and productivity.

A big stumbling block for farmers in the developing world is free and easy access to markets. One obvious reason is the perception, even amongst farmers themselves that they suffer from an inherent inability to produce consistent high quantities of quality produce. But while that is lamented, we tend to ignore another, and equally important factor - farmers don't have the necessary knowledge about the markets and market agents, thus missing out on opportunities that they should be using to their benefit.

In South Africa, we have 19 Fresh Produce Markets (FPM) that are all open for trade to farmers, including small-scale farmers. As it stands, most of the produce sold at these markets come from large-scale commercial farmers while small-scale farmers tend to opt for less formal markets. Many small-scale farmers, especially in co-operatives or informal groups have the ability to produce quality and quantity, and lack of access to markets is often based on perception, rather than reality.

One reason for this lies in the lack of intimate knowledge of small producers about the general procedures and processes of FPM's, and the opportunities they present to small farmers. Trading in markets of this scale require all farmers to have intimate knowledge of market operations, rules and regulations. One easy way to start learning about market operations is to collaborate with reputable market agents.

A visit to an FPM is the obvious starting place for a farmer to see how trading occurs on the market floor; to get to know the competition; how others are marketing their produce; keep up with the latest trends; new varieties; and developments within the market. Farmers should talk to buyers on the market floor and to determine their preferences regarding aspects such as quality and packing quantities. Most importantly, a visit to the market is the opportunity to get to know the different market agents who are the "sellers" of products on the market floor, and to form a working partnership with one or more agents, according to their needs.

Trading in Fresh Produce Markets is conducted only through official market agents, who will be playing significant roles in a farmers' success on the market.

All this means that small-scale farmers will have to adjust to current FPM's for them to become serious participants in the FPM space. They need to know and understand the many components of an FPM to remain competitive and continue farming and improving in a sustainable manner. In understanding the market, the farmer will make better decisions on production planning, and align their produce to market specifications.

Farmers and market agents both have to respect and to work according to the strict rules and regulations of the market. Market agents already have the required knowledge and will provide their farmers (clients), with knowledge and information, including dynamic information like supply and demand trends; customer preference changes; price fluctuations; and favourable selling periods.

The working relationship between a farmer and market agent is usually one based on trust, transparency, and mutual benefit - a relationship that will ensure that the specific client is represented properly at the market.

Winter crops are selected for their ability to cope and grow well in the lower temperature ranges - even in frosty winter weather. These include different types of crops and variations, such as cool-weather vegetables, winter field crops, and deciduous fruits.

Cold temperatures and low rainfall influence crop growth and yields. Some crops, depending on their water requirements may need supplementary irrigation where rainfall proves inadequate. Most parts of southern Africa are classified as summer rainfall areas having mainly dry winters, with the winter rainfall Western Cape region, as the exception. Winter crop growers, notably vegetable producers, need to be prepared in terms of sufficient water availability for irrigation when the need arises for crop, water-supplement.

To ensure maximum growth and minimum crop damage during winter, farmers need to know the climate requirements of crops. Each crop has its specific temperature and water needs for optimal growth and yield results. Vegetable crops suited for winter production include asparagus, cabbage, lettuce, garden peas, spinach. Field crops for winter wheat planting include lupin, and deciduous fruit trees, especially apples, plums, cherries, persimmons and others.

A cool-season vegetable like cabbage will normally withstand moderate frost and survive in minimum temperatures of up to -3 °C. However, if low temperatures persist over a longer period, the cabbage will grow long stems and will start to bolt - flower stalk formation and seeding.

The Western Cape has the perfect climate - cold and moist weather, with winter rainfall followed by a warm and dry season- for winter wheat production, and crop yields are excellent when the weather sticks to the script.

Deciduous fruit trees require chilling units (one unit is equal to one hour's exposure to the chilling temperature) to enter the dormant stage (rest period) during the winter season to ensure eventual optimal flowering and fruit production. Once it reaches the tree chilling requirement, trees will start to break their dormancy as temperatures rise and bud breaking occurs. The cherry fruit tree for example, needs an average of ≥1 000 hours of chilling units, at or below 7 °Celsius. Cold requirement varies from one type of fruit tree to another.

Growing winter crops require proper planning regarding the available varieties suited to the cold conditions, water availability for supplementary irrigation, and market demand for the product. Advantages of winter crop production include low weed competition (only limited types of weed species grow in cold weather), and low evaporation rates due to lower sun intensity - reducing irrigation application.

The raison d'être for the South African Extension Service, "the dissemination of existing knowledge and new research findings to the farming community" dates back to 1925, and is proof that providing agricultural skills to farmers in South Africa is not just a modern-day requirement. Through decades of neglect and omission, agricultural knowledge has become even more critical in terms of agricultural resource management, food security, job creation and economic development.

Governments in the developing and developed countries, international aid organisations, and public and private institutions, battle continuously to improve life in the rural areas of the developing world through agriculture, while trying to include rural people in the mainstream of regional, national, and international economics.

The irony is that at a time when knowledge and improved technical farming techniques allow the production of more food on less land, and consumers demand better quality at lower prices, there are millions of smallholders and producers in Africa, India, Asia and elsewhere who lack the basic skills to feed their families and make a decent living from the soil.

As much as 69% of the land surface in South Africa is suitable for grazing, making livestock farming the largest agricultural sector in the country by far. Skills training for rural livestock farming, therefore, warrants a front seat in rural agricultural training efforts. Skills required include construction of animal housing and handling facilities; feeding and nutrition; breeding; health; record keeping; and human general resources management. Agricultural training demands a lot of practical training and hands-on application, and animal production skills training is no exception. In addition to general skills like business and financial management, livestock producers also need a whole range of competencies to ensure that their farming enterprises not only provide food but also create jobs and a decent living standard for themselves and their dependents.

While agricultural extension and advice are plugging the holes caused by the decades-long, lack of provision of knowledge and skills, the government offers programmes for experiential training, internship and professional development programmes. Many institutions and training centres offer a range of courses to upgrade farmers and worker's skills levels. Agricultural training, however, is mostly too expensive for rural people, necessitating more government support. The poverty and unemployment that is forcing rural people to look for deliverance in the urban areas have now spilt over into our cities, making it everyone's problem.

Manstrat AIS, through the development and maintenance of agricultural decision-making applications, is at the forefront of agricultural knowledge sharing. The Manstrat vision is to strive towards placing devices with agricultural knowledge, in every farmers' hands, to ensure that the best possible advice and information are disseminated in the interest of farmers, and the country.

Agricultural land use is the management and modification of the environment for agricultural purposes, and consists of the production of goods (crop production, livestock farming, mining and timber), and services (protection of biodiversity and natural resources).

Land cover should not be confused with land use. Although they share some similarities, they are also very different in other instances. Land Cover refers to the observed physical surface of the earth including the vegetation types, soils, rocks, water bodies, urban and built-up areas.

Significant changes in land use and land cover can drastically alter functional ecosystems. Overgrazing, for instance, causes desertification while intensive deforestation alters the Albedo of the earth's surface, eventually leading to decreased rainfall. Changing the earth's surface can further result in local heating or cooling, depending on the changes in the reflection in particular areas. Therefore, changes in both land use and land cover play a role in climate change, with the accompanying negative impact on natural resources. Proper planning and research is therefore required to ensure the optimal and sustainable use of natural resources.

The importance of Geographical Information Systems (GIS) usage in modern day land-use planning cannot be over-emphasised. By applying a wide variety of data to assist land use planners, it provides a platform to visualise, model and analyse natural or build up environments. The strength of GIS lies in allowing for multiple criteria evaluation, using different datasets. Depending on the type of analysis, weights are added to the assessment criteria to ensure the most relevant factors are considered in the analysis.

Another advantage of GIS lies in the fact that criteria can be changed, making visual illustrations of the changes becoming available immediately. GIS technologies provide a most reliable platform for land use planning, and decision-making.

Land use planning is not only essential for governmental planning in the optimal use of the natural resources, but allow farmers in utilising farm-land to its fullest. It is further necessary to focus on the potential and the limitations of the available natural resources for effective land utilisation as environmental conditions ultimately determine what crops a farmer can produce.

Manstrat AIS develops agricultural business plans based on GIS data for land-use planning. By combining climate data with water resources and soil data, the company produces maps that indicate areas most suitable for crop and vegetable production, and shows how various GIS datasets are used in agricultural land use planning.

By combining the results of research that determine environmental factors conducive to pest and disease outbreaks, with crop and vegetable production maps, more useful maps are created for crop and vegetable production.

The use of GIS technology is relatively new in land use planning. It is often difficult and costly to obtain all the necessary datasets needed for analysis. GIS technologies save time and money in the analysis of data while providing accurate and reliable answers. It also prevents undesirable changes in land-use that often occurred in the past.

GIS decision support systems provide a holistic approach to land-use planning, by conducting land suitability analysis to determine future land-use needs, as well as providing suitable future locations.

“We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a commodity to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.” Aldo Leopold.

References:

More about Albedo

The production of a crop by a farmer can be considered as a project and the project management skills required are no different from any other project. Furthermore, this applies to all types of crop production, whether it be a large-scale maize project or the production of a few hundred square metres of vegetables.

The correct timing of activities, involved in the production of the crop, is critical. Planning and scheduling of activities from planting to final harvest, handling and marketing of the product, collectively ensure successful production of the crop.

Poor timing of activities and lack of resources are major causes of low yields, particularly in small-scale production. For example, planting of cereal crops is often delayed until well into the rainy season when the operation can be easily completed. The reason for this may be something like the lack of draught power for land preparation. But the result is slow and poor crop growth caused by leaching of fertility, competition from weeds in wet conditions, increased pest and disease problems, and slow growth in overcast weather. All of which mean lower yields and quality.

Consequently, planning is needed. The first step is the use of a “crop calendar” which highlights the periods during which the main activities must be completed for the specific crop and area. Dates can be set for the start and completion of activities. Often an activity must be completed before the next can begin; for example, ploughing and disking in the field, or the production of seedlings in the nursery, must be completed before planting can begin. As already mentioned, delaying planting can have severe effects on crop yields and quality.

Crop calendar example:

Planning must also include the acquisition of resources; that is, the resources needed to complete the task must be available. Planning includes not only equipment needed to do the task (tractors, sprayers, irrigation) and inputs to be used (seed, chemicals, fertilisers), but also personnel. Sufficient people with the necessary skills must be available.

Plans must be practical and realistic so that, when implementing the tasks, they can be completed in good time without any delays.

All these activities have a cost and the second step is financial planning. These costs must be calculated and a budget produced. From the activities planned on the crop calendar, it is now known when this money will be spent, and it is easy to produce a budgeted cash-flow. The cash flow will show how viable the project is and if it should be modified or even abandoned.

A cash-flow must also be used to compare the budgeted figures, month by month, with the actual spending and income. Any variations must be explained, and if the project is not progressing as planned, then changes must be made to recover the situation.

With the prolonging drought gripping the country, livestock owners not only have to worry about where the next feed and water source will come from, but they will also need to watch over the health of their remaining animals. Low feed and water intakes place a tremendous amount of stress on animals that directly affects immunity levels. Drought, however, also has an impact on the surrounding environment exposing livestock to additional nutrition and health risks.

Water is an essential element of life that regulates many important physiological processes in the body. Reduced water intake will result in reduced feed intake. While the lack of water during droughts is already a serious problem, the quality of any available water is also cause for concern. Increased concentrations of total dissolved solids (TDS) during droughts, affect the palatability and toxicity levels of water. High amounts of some nutrients, such as sulphates and nitrates, will have an adverse effect on animal health and performance.

The presence of algal and bacterial blooms, most specifically blue-green algae, on open water sources further poses a risk to animals. Animals crowding around and in waterholes and ponds may contaminate the water, thus increasing the nutrient load in the water which promotes the growth of algae and bacteria. Blue-green algae (Cyanobacteria) can release neurotoxins into the water and cause liver damage in animals.

In drought disaster areas, feed sources are severely limited with farmers resorting to feeding any available feeds. These feeds are often much poorer in quality (deficient in both energy and protein), than what is normally fed. Feeding feeds of poor quality can exacerbate deficiencies of important minerals and vitamins resulting in several metabolic diseases due to the mineral imbalances.

Further health risks come with feeding alternative feeds not commonly found in the diets of animals. Feeds such as sweet potatoes may be mouldy or animals may eat sharp grass awns or spiny plants that can injure the lining of the mouth and digestive tract, and become infected. Animals are also prone to plant poisonings either through the consumption of poisonous plants not usually eaten or consuming plants that may become toxic when drought-stressed. Nitrate and prussic acid poisonings are such examples.

AgriSuite Online® provides a wide range of information in terms of nutrition and herd health during times of drought that farmers can access. Together with a veterinarian, a health programme can be devised to ensure animals are vaccinated against essential diseases including respiratory and clostridial diseases, given vitamin injections and treated for external and internal parasites. This will help to limit health and nutrition risks caused by droughts.